Ethics is the branch of philosophy that explores morality, or the set of beliefs about right and wrong behavior. Many ethical traditions have roots in religion, but ethics also can be secular. The term “ethics” comes from the Greek word ethos, which means “character.” People who study ethics are called ethicists.
There are many different approaches to ethics, but most can be divided into three major schools: consequentialism, deontology, and virtue ethics. Consequentialism is the view that an action is morally right if it leads to good consequences (such as happiness or well-being), and wrong if it leads to bad consequences. Deontology is the view that an action is morally right if it conforms to a moral rule (such as “Do not steal”), and wrong if it breaks such a rule. Virtue ethics is the view that an action is morally right if it reflects a virtuous character (such as bravery or generosity), and wrong if it does not reflect such a character.
Some ethical issues are relatively easy to resolve using one of these approaches; others are much more difficult. For example, most people would agree that lying is generally wrong, because lying usually has bad consequences (it hurts people’s feelings, damages relationships, etc.). But what about cases where telling the truth might have bad consequences? Should we always tell the truth regardless of the potential harm? This question becomes much more difficult when we try to apply one of our ethical theories to it.
One way to think about ethical problems is in terms of conflicts between different values or principles. For example, consider the following dilemma: You see a stranger drowning in a river and you know that you can save him, but doing so would mean getting your expensive new shoes wet. On one hand, you value human life and don’t want anyone to die needlessly; on the other hand, you value your possessions and don’t want them to get ruined unnecessarily. What should you do?
This dilemma illustrates two common values that often conflict with each other: beneficence (the duty to help others) and self-interest (the desire to promote one’s own welfare). Another common pair of conflicting values are autonomy (the freedom to make one’s own decisions) and paternalism (the belief that some people need protection from their own choices). Many ethical dilemmas arise because we have competing obligations under these various values—for instance, we may feel obligated bothto tell our friends the truth about their relationships andto respect their autonomy by allowing them to find out for themselves what kind of person their partner really is.